Notes on Chapter 1 Bricks, Beads and Bones The Harappan Civilisation
- Indus valley civilization is one of the four earliest civilizations of the world along with the civilization of Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China.
- The civilization forms part of the proto-history of India and belongs to the Bronze Age.
- Harappan seal is the most unique artifact of the Harappan civilization. It is made of stone called Steatite.
- Named after Harappa, the first site where this unique culture was discovered, the civilization is dated between c. 2600 and 1900 BCE.
- These cultures were associated with distinctive pottery, evidence of agriculture and pastoralism and some crafts.
- The Harappan ate wide range of plant and animal products, including fish.
- The prevalence of agriculture is indicated by finds of grain.
- Terracotta models of the plough have been found at sites in Cholistan and at Banawali (Haryana).
- The most unique feature of the Harappan civilization was the development of Urban centers.
- Mohenjodaro is the most well known site but the first site to be discovered was Harappa.
- The Mohenjodaro settlement is divided into two sections, the citadel and the lower town.
- One of the most distinctive features of Harappan cities was the drainage system. Roads and streets were laid out along an approximate ‘grid pattern’, intersecting at right angles.
- The lower town at Mohenjo-Daro provides examples of residential buildings. On the citadel evidence of structures are found, that they were probably used for special public purposes.
- The great bath was a large rectangular tank in a courtyard surrounded by a corridor on all four sides.
- Seals and sealings were used to facilitate long distance communication.
- The script was written from right to left.
- Exchanges were regulated by a precise system of weights, usually made of a stone called chert.
- By c. 1800 BCE most of the mature Harappan sites in regions such as Cholistan had been abandoned.
- Cunningham was the first Director General of the Archaeological survey of India (ASI). John Marshal was the Director General of the Archaeological survey of India (ASI). He was interested in new findings and looked for patterns of everyday life. He tended to excavate along regular horizontal units measured uniformly throughout the mound, ignoring the stratigraphy.
- Harappan Civilization is also known as Indus Valley Civilization.
- It is the oldest civilization in India, and there is no consensus about its chronology.
- Various scholars have given different dates, with Sir John Marshall estimating its flourish between 3250 and 2750 BCE.
- Daya Ram Sahni discovered the sites of Harappan in 1921.
- The main centers of this civilization are in Pakistan, with famous sites including Mohenjodaro and Chanhudaro.
- In India, the main centers where this civilization flourished are Kalibangan, Sangol, Pengplor, Lothal, Dholavira, and Banawali.
- The urban planning of this civilization was magnificent, with houses built systematically and roads cut at right angles.
- The people made careful plans for drainage of rainwater and dirty water.
- The caste system was not present, and women held a high position in society.
- The people were prosperous, with main occupations in agriculture and domestication of animals.
- Trade was well developed, both domestic and external.
- The people worshipped many gods and goddesses, including mother goddesses, Lord Shiva, animals, birds, trees, and the Sun.
- They were skilled in arts and crafts, making sculptures, toys, pottery, ornaments, and seals.
- The languages used on the seals have not been deciphered, and excavation of Indus sites is the main source of information about this civilization.
- Many tools, pottery, seals, household objects, and other materials have been excavated and studied by archaeologists.
- Historians and archaeologists have played a valuable role in reconstructing the history of this civilization, including figures such as Cunningham, R.E.M. Wheeler, John Marshall, S.R. Rao, R.S. Bisht, and B.K. Thapar.
- Indus Valley Civilization is also known as Bronze Age Civilization due to the use of bronze in pottery, figures, and ornaments.
- By 1900 BCE, there were explicit signs of decline, with Mohenjodaro and Harappa having completely declined by this time.
- Around 1200 BCE, this civilization had completely vanished due to reasons such as epidemics, Aryan invasion, changes in the course of the river Indus, excessive floods, and earthquakes.
- The Harappan Civilisation is also known as Indus Valley Civilisation.
- This civilisation is dated between BCE 2600 and 1990 BCE.
- It is the oldest civilisation of India.
- We know about the civilisation from archaeological evidences like houses, pots, ornaments, tools and seals used by the people of that period.
- There were also earlier and later cultures, known as Early Harappan and Late Harappan Civilisation.
- Cunningham was the first Director General of Archaeological Survey of India who began archaeological excavations in the Harappan sites.
- Cunningham was unable to find the significance of Harappan Civilisation and thought that Indian history began with the first cities in the Ganga valley.
- Daya Ram Sahni, Rakhal Das Baneiji, John Marshall were some of the important archaeologists associated with the discovery of Harappan Civilisation.
- The frontiers of the Harappan civilisation have no connection with present day national boundaries.
- The major sites are now in Pakistani territory.
- In India, a number of Harappan settlements were found in Punjab and Haryana.
- The main centres where this civilisation flourished in India are Kalibangan, Lothal, Dholavira, Rakhi Garhi and Banawali.
- Archaeologist tried to classify artefacts in terms of material and in terms of function by comparing these with present-day things.
- The problems of archaeological interpretation are most evident in attempts to reconstruct religious practices of the Harappan.
- Unusual objects like terracotta figurines of women, stone statuary of men, motif of unicorn and figure in yogic posture on seals and structures like the great bath and fire altars may have had a religious significance.
- Several reconstructions regarding the Harappan civilisation remain speculative at present and there is a vast scope for future work.
Timelines
- 1862 Alexander Cunningham appointed as the first Director General of Archaeological Survey of India.
- 1921 D.R. Sahni discovered Harappa.
- 1992 R.D. Banneijee discovered Mohenjodaro
- 1924 Sir John Marshall announced the discovery of Indus Valley Civilisation.
- 1953 Kalibangan was excavated by A. Ghosh.
- 1955 S.R. Rao discovered Lothal.
- 1968 Sanghal was discovered by S.S. Talwar and R.S. Bisht.
Important Terms
Seal: These seals were made of steatite, a soft stone that was easy to carve and polish.
Hoards: Hoards were often buried in the ground for safekeeping and were sometimes never retrieved by their owners.
Stratigraphy: Stratigraphy is used to determine the relative ages of different archaeological layers. Motif: The most commonly used animal motif on Harappan seals is the unicorn.
Proto-Shiva: The Proto-Shiva seal suggests that the practice of yoga and meditation has been a part of Indian culture for thousands of years.
Lingas: The worship of lingas is still an important part of Hindu religious practice today. Shamans: Shamans played an important role in many ancient societies and were often consulted for their spiritual and medicinal expertise.
Pictographs: The Harappan script, which has not yet been fully deciphered, is made up of pictographic signs.
The Great Bath: The Great Bath was likely used for religious and ritual purposes, rather than for everyday bathing. Granaries:
Granaries were an important part of Harappan urban planning and were often located near the city center.
MCQs on Chapter 1 Bricks, Beads and Bones The Harappan Civilisation
- When was the report of Alexander Cunningham on Harappan seal published?
A. 1875
B. 1921
C. 1925
D. 1946
- Who began excavations at Harappa in 1921?
A. Alexander Cunningham
B. M.S. Vats
C. R.E.M. Wheeler
D. S.R. Rao
- When did a team of German and Italian archaeologists begin surface explorations at Mohenjodaro?
A. 1921
B. 1925
C. 1980
D. 1986
- When was the Lower Palaeolithic period in India?
A. 2 million BCE
B. 1.8 million BCE
C. 2 million BP
D. 1.8 million BP
- When did the Harappan civilization emerge in India?
A. 2500 BCE
B. 2650 BCE
C. 2600 BCE
D. 2550 BCE
- Who began excavations at the site of Harappa in India in 1921?
A. R.E.M. Wheeler
B. S.R. Rao
C. M.S. Vats
D. B.B. Lal and B.K. Thapar
- What was the time period of the Lower Palaeolithic in Early Indian Archaeology?
A. 2 million BP
B. 80,000 BP
C. 35,000 BP
D. 10,000 BP
- What was the major development in the Harappan Archaeology in the 19th century?
A. Excavations begin at Harappa
B. Excavations begin at Lothal
C. Report of Alexander Cunningham on Harappan seal
D. None of the above
- When did the excavations begin at Mohenjodaro in Harappan Archaeology?
A. 1921
B. 1925
C. 1946
D. 1955
- What was the major development in the Harappan Archaeology in the 20th century?
A. Excavations begin at Harappa
B. Excavations begin at Mohenjodaro
C. Report of Alexander Cunningham on Harappan seal
D. Explorations in Bahawalpur
- What was the main source of food for the Harappans?
A. Fish
B. Grains
C. Animal products
D. All of the above
- What was used for ploughing in the Harappan civilization?
A. Bull
B. Oxen
C. Terracotta models
D. All of the above
- What was used for harvesting in the Harappan civilization?
A. Stone blades set in wooden handles
B. Metal tools
C. Both A and B
D. None of the above
- What was the main feature of the Harappan civilization?
A. Agricultural techniques
B. Development of urban centres
C. Advanced military technology
D. Scientific innovations
- What were the two sections of the Mohenjodaro settlement?
A. Upper Town and Lower Town
B. Inner City and Outer City
C. Citadel and Lower Town
D. Old Town and New Town
- What was one of the most distinctive features of Harappan cities?
A. Sun-dried bricks of standardized ratio
B. Walled settlements
C. A carefully planned drainage system
D. Houses built along a street pattern
- What is the most well-known site of the Harappan civilization?
A. Mohenjodaro
B. Harappa
C. Citadel
D. Lower Town
- What is the most unique feature of the Harappan civilization?
A. Development of urban centres
B. Standardized bricks
C. Walling
D. Drainage system
- What were the Harappan cities known for?
A. Standardized bricks
B. Drainage system
C. Walling
D. All of the above
